Subject Content - GCSE Physics

Subject Content

GCSE Physics A content is organised into eight teaching topics, P1-P8, plus the practical activity skills topic P9. The tables below show how the first topics are structured and what learners need to know, apply, and practise.

Each sub-topic includes a short summary, linked prior knowledge, common misconceptions, tiering guidance, mathematical links, learning outcomes, and practical suggestions. More topic chapters can be added into this route as the remaining content is prepared.

Summary of content for GCSE Physics A

Topic	Sub-topics
Topic P1: Matter	P1.1 The particle model P1.2 Changes of state P1.3 Pressure
Topic P2: Forces	P2.1 Motion P2.2 Newton's laws P2.3 Forces in action
Topic P3: Electricity	P3.1 Static and charge P3.2 Simple circuits
Topic P4: Magnetism and magnetic fields	P4.1 Magnets and magnetic fields P4.2 Uses of magnetism
Topic P5: Waves in matter	P5.1 Wave behaviour P5.2 The electromagnetic spectrum P5.3 Wave interactions
Topic P6: Radioactivity	P6.1 Radioactive emissions P6.2 Uses and hazards
Topic P7: Energy	P7.1 Work done P7.2 Power and efficiency
Topic P8: Global challenges	P8.1 Physics on the move P8.2 Powering Earth P8.3 Beyond Earth
Topic P9: Practical skills	Practical-based skills that support the required practical content in the examinations.

Topic P1 Matter

Matter introduces the particle model, changes of state, density, and pressure. Learners connect models of particles to measurable quantities and to everyday physical changes.

P1.1 The particle model

Summary: This sub-topic develops the particle view of matter and links it to atomic structure, density, and conservation of mass.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should already know that atoms are examples of particles and should be able to distinguish atoms, molecules, and compounds.

Common misconceptions: Learners may confuse atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles, or mix up units when measuring volume.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM1.1i	Recall and apply $density = \frac{mass\ (kg)}{volume\ (m^3)}$ .	M1a, M1b, M1c, M3b, M3c, M5c

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P1.1a	Describe how and why the atomic model has changed over time.	Thomson, Rutherford with Geiger and Marsden, and Bohr models.	M5b	WS1.1a, WS1.1c, WS1.1g	Timeline showing the development of atomic theory. Discuss how scientists' roles and evidence shaped the model.
P1.1b	Describe the atom as a positive nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons, with the nucleus much smaller than the atom and containing almost all of its mass.		M5b	WS1.1b	Model making, including simple 3D atomic structures.
P1.1c	Recall the typical order of magnitude for atoms and small molecules.	Typical scale around $1 \times 10^{-10}$ m.	M1b	WS1.1d
P1.1d	Define density.			WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3c, WS1.3d, WS1.4a, WS1.4b, WS1.4e, WS1.4f, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Measure length, volume, and mass, then use them to calculate density. Investigate Archimedes' principle with eureka cans.
P1.1e	Explain differences in density between states of matter using the arrangement of atoms and molecules.		M5b	WS1.1b
P1.1f	Apply the relationship between density, mass, and volume when mass is conserved.		M1a, M1b, M1c, M3c

P1.2 Changes of state

Summary: Learners use the particle model to explain melting, freezing, evaporation, condensation, and sublimation, and connect these changes to energy transfer.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know the structure of matter, similarities and differences between solids, liquids, and gases, and how particle behaviour changes as temperature changes.

Common misconceptions: Learners often mix up particles with states of matter, confuse air and vapour, or use temperature and heat as if they mean the same thing.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM1.2i	Apply: change in thermal energy (J) = mass (kg) x specific heat capacity (J/kg degrees C) x change in temperature (degrees C).	M1a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM1.2ii	Apply: thermal energy for a change in state (J) = mass (kg) x specific latent heat (J/kg).	M1a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P1.2a	Describe how mass is conserved when substances melt, freeze, evaporate, condense, or sublime.			WS1.3a, WS1.3e, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2c	Use a data logger to record changes in state and mass at different temperatures. Demonstrate distillation to show conservation of mass during evaporation and condensation.
P1.2b	Describe that physical changes differ from chemical changes because the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed.
P1.2c	Describe how heating a system changes the stored energy and raises temperature or produces a change of state.			WS1.3a, WS1.3e, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Observe crystallisation of salol in water under a microscope. Record the temperature changes as ice is heated.
P1.2d	Define specific heat capacity and distinguish it from specific latent heat.	Specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation.		WS1.2e, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS1.4f, WS2a, WS2b	Investigate the specific heat capacity of different metals or water using electrical heaters and a joulemeter.
P1.2e	Apply the relationship between internal energy change, mass, specific heat capacity, and temperature change.		M1a, M3c, M3d
P1.2f	Apply the relationship between specific latent heat, mass, and energy change during a change of state.		M1a, M3c, M3d	WS1.2e, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS1.4f, WS2a, WS2b	Measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water or the specific latent heat of stearic acid.

P1.3 Pressure

Summary: This sub-topic develops pressure in gases and liquids, including how gas pressure links to temperature and how liquid pressure increases with depth.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should understand atmospheric pressure, liquid pressure with height, floating and sinking, and that pressure is force per unit area acting normally to a surface.

Common misconceptions: Learners may misunderstand floating and sinking, pressure and suction, or the way air pressure acts during demonstrations such as collapsing cans.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM1.3i	Apply: for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, pressure (Pa) x volume (m3) = constant.	M1a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM1.3ii	Apply: pressure due to a liquid column (Pa) = height of column (m) x density of liquid (kg/m3) x gravitational field strength (N/kg).	M1a, M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P1.3a	Explain how gas molecule motion is related to temperature and pressure.	Apply to closed systems only.	M1c, M4a, M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2e, WS1.3e, WS1.4a, WS2a	Demonstrate pressure changes in an inflated balloon that is heated and frozen. Build manometers to show pressure changes in heated or cooled gases.
P1.3b	Explain the relationship between gas temperature and pressure at constant volume.		M1c, M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2e, WS1.3e, WS1.4a, WS2a	Demonstrate an exploding can experiment or Alka-Seltzer rockets.
P1.3c	Recall that gases can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes and that pressure produces a net force at right angles to any surface.		M4a, M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2e, WS1.3e, WS1.4a, WS2a	Compare compression in syringes containing sand, water, and air. Demonstrate a collapsing can or Cartesian diver.
P1.3d	Explain how increasing the volume of a gas at constant temperature decreases pressure.	Behaviour regarding particle velocity and collisions.	M1c, M4a, M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2e, WS1.3e, WS1.4a	Demonstrate the behaviour of marshmallows in a vacuum.
P1.3e	Higher tier only: explain how doing work on a gas increases its temperature.	Examples such as a bicycle pump.		WS1.1b, WS1.2a	Demonstrate heat production in a bicycle inner tube as it is pumped up.
P1.3f	Describe a simple model of the Earth's atmosphere and atmospheric pressure.	Assume uniform density; knowledge of layers is not expected.	M5b
P1.3g	Explain why atmospheric pressure varies with height above the Earth's surface.
P1.3h	Higher tier only: describe the factors that influence floating and sinking.
P1.3i	Higher tier only: explain why pressure in a liquid varies with depth and density and how this produces an upward force on a partly submerged object.			WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.3a, WS2a	Discuss buoyancy using a ping pong ball in water.
P1.3j	Higher tier only: calculate differences in pressure at different depths in a liquid.	Use $g = 10\ N/kg$ near the Earth's surface unless told otherwise.	M1c, M3c	WS1.1b, WS1.2a	Demonstrate water pressure differences using a can with holes.

Topic P2 Forces

Forces covers motion, Newton's laws, deformation, energy transfer, pressure in fluids, moments, and momentum. Learners use graphs, equations, and practical observations to describe interactions.

P2.1 Motion

Summary: Learners move from describing matter to analysing motion, using speed, distance, time, acceleration, and graphs.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know the basic relationships between speed, distance, and time, and should be able to represent motion on distance-time graphs.

Common misconceptions: Learners may find action at a distance difficult, may assume velocity must always be positive, or may confuse scalar and vector quantities.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM2.1i	Recall and apply: distance travelled (m) = speed (m/s) x time (s).	M1a, M2b, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d, M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d, M4e
PM2.1ii	Recall and apply: acceleration (m/s2) = change in velocity (m/s) / time (s).	M1a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.1iii	Apply: final velocity squared - initial velocity squared = 2 x acceleration x distance.	M1a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.1iv	Recall and apply: kinetic energy (J) = 1/2 x mass (kg) x speed squared.	M1a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P2.1a	Describe how to measure distance and time in a range of scenarios.
P2.1b	Describe how to measure distance and time and use them to calculate speed.	Include interpretation from graphs.	M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d, M4f	WS1.2b, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS1.3i, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Calculate speeds of learners walking or running a measured distance. Investigate trolleys on ramps.
P2.1c	Convert units and compute rates using ratio and proportional reasoning.	Convert non-SI units to SI units.	M1c, M3c
P2.1d	Explain the vector-scalar distinction for displacement, distance, velocity, and speed.
P2.1e	Relate changes in motion to distance-time and velocity-time graphs, including interpreting lines and slopes.		M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d	WS1.3a	Draw displacement-time and velocity-time graphs of a journey.
P2.1f	Higher tier only: interpret enclosed area in velocity-time graphs.		M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d, M4f
P2.1g	Calculate average speed for non-uniform motion.		M1a, M1c, M2b, M3c
P2.1h	Apply formulae for distance, time, speed, and uniform acceleration.		M1a, M1c, M2b, M3c	WS1.2b, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS1.3i, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate acceleration.

P2.2 Newton's laws

Summary: Newton's laws describe how forces and mass determine changes in motion.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should understand contact and non-contact forces and that forces can be shown with arrows. They should also know about balanced and unbalanced forces.

Common misconceptions: Learners often think motion needs a continuous force, or struggle to identify balanced forces and changing momentum in collisions.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM2.2i	Recall and apply: force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.2ii	Recall and apply: momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.2iii	Recall and apply: work done (J) = force (N) x distance (m), along the line of action of the force.	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.2iv	Recall and apply: power (W) = work done (J) / time (s).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P2.2a	Recall examples of ways objects interact.	Electrostatics, gravity, magnetism, and contact forces including normal contact force and friction.
P2.2b	Describe how interactions between pairs of objects produce a force on each object.
P2.2c	Represent forces as vectors.	Draw free-body force diagrams to show forces as vectors.	M5b	WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2d	Measure terminal velocity of ball bearings in glycerol at different temperatures or with different sizes.
P2.2d	Apply Newton's first law to explain uniform velocity and changes in speed or direction.	Look at forces on one body and resultant forces qualitatively.		WS1.3e, WS2a	Demonstrate collision gliders on a linear air track. Use balloon gliders to consider force effects.
P2.2e	Higher tier only: use vector diagrams to illustrate resolution of forces, resultant force, and equilibrium.	Scale drawings limited to parallel and perpendicular vectors only.	M4a, M5a, M5b
P2.2f	Higher tier only: describe examples of forces acting on an isolated solid object or system.	Objects that reach terminal velocity, such as skydivers and similar vehicle examples.		WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2d	Design and build a parachute for a mass and measure its terminal velocity.
P2.2g	Describe, using free-body diagrams, examples where two or more forces produce a resultant force on an object.
P2.2h	Describe, using free-body diagrams, the special case where balanced forces produce a resultant force of zero.
P2.2i	Apply Newton's second law in calculations involving forces, masses, and accelerations.		M1a, M2a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Use light gates, weights, and trolleys to investigate the link between force and acceleration.
P2.2j	Higher tier only: explain inertia as a measure of how difficult it is to change an object's velocity, and define inertial mass as force divided by acceleration.
P2.2k	Define momentum and describe examples of momentum in collisions.	Include conservation of momentum in collisions.		WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Use light gates, weights, and trolleys to measure momentum. Use a water rocket to demonstrate momentum.
P2.2l	Apply formulae relating force, mass, velocity, and acceleration to explain inter-related changes.		M3b, M3c, M3d
P2.2m	Use the relationship between work done, force, and distance moved along the line of action of the force to describe energy transfer.		M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b	Measure work done by lifting weights or walking upstairs.
P2.2n	Calculate stored energy values and energy transfers between movement and joules.		M1c, M3c	WS1.4e, WS1.4f
P2.2o	Explain, with examples, the definition of power as the rate of energy transfer.
P2.2p	Recall and apply Newton's third law.	Application to equilibrium and non-equilibrium situations.
P2.2q	Higher tier only: explain why an object moving in a circle at constant speed has changing velocity.			WS1.3e	Demonstrate spinning a rubber bung on a string.

P2.3 Forces in action

Summary: Learners study fields and force effects, including stretching, compressing, deformation, gravity, weight, pressure, and turning forces.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should understand forces that deform objects or restrict motion, Hooke's law, and that work done can store energy in an object.

Common misconceptions: Learners may confuse mass and weight or find force multipliers challenging.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM2.3i	Recall and apply: force exerted by a spring (N) = spring constant (N/m) x extension (m).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.3ii	Apply: energy transferred in stretching (J) = 1/2 x spring constant (N/m) x extension squared.	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.3iii	Recall and apply: gravitational force (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.3iv	Recall and apply: gravitational potential energy (J) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg) x height (m).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.3v	Recall and apply: pressure (Pa) = force normal to a surface (N) / area of that surface (m2).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM2.3vi	Recall and apply: moment of a force (N m) = force (N) x distance (m), normal to the force's direction.	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P2.3a	Explain that stretching, bending, or compressing an object needs more than one force.	Applications to real-life situations.		WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Use a liquorice lace or spring to explore extension and stretching.
P2.3b	Describe the difference between elastic and plastic deformation caused by stretching forces.			WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Compare springs and elastic bands during loading and unloading with weights.
P2.3c	Describe the relationship between force and extension for a spring and other simple systems.	Graphical representation of spring extension.	M1a, M2a, M4a, M4b, M4c	WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS1.4f, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Investigate forces on springs and Hooke's law.
P2.3d	Describe the difference between linear and non-linear relationships between force and extension.		M1a, M2a, M4a, M4b, M4c	WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Investigate the elastic limit of springs and other materials.
P2.3e	Calculate a spring constant in linear cases.		M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
P2.3f	Calculate the work done in stretching.		M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d, M4a, M4b, M4c, M4f	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS1.4f, WS2c	Use stretching data to calculate work done.
P2.3g	Describe that all matter has a gravitational field causing attraction, and that field strength is greater for massive objects.
P2.3h	Define weight, describe how it is measured, and describe the relationship between weight and gravitational field strength.	Know that gravitational field strength is $g$ and has a value of 10 N/kg at the Earth's surface.		WS1.1b	Calculate weight on different planets.
P2.3i	Recall the acceleration in free fall.
P2.3j	Apply formulae relating force, mass, and physical constants, including gravitational field strength, to explore inter-related changes.		M1c, M3b, M3c
P2.3k	Higher tier only: describe examples where forces cause rotation.	Location of pivot points and whether the resultant turning force is clockwise or anticlockwise.
P2.3l	Higher tier only: define and calculate the moment of a force.	Principle of moments for objects that are balanced.	M1a, M1c, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Investigate moments using a metre ruler, pivot, and balancing masses.
P2.3m	Higher tier only: explain how levers and gears transmit rotational effects of forces.	Ratios and how they allow gears and levers to work as force multipliers.	M1c
P2.3n	Higher tier only: recall that pressure in fluids causes a net force at right angles to any surface.			WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.4a	Demonstrate balloons pushed onto a single drawing pin compared with many drawing pins.
P2.3o	Higher tier only: use the relationship between force, pressure, and area of contact.	Simple hydraulic systems.	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic P3 Electricity

Electricity introduces charge, static electricity, electric fields, current, potential difference, resistance, circuit symbols, and behaviour in series and parallel circuits.

P3.1 Static and charge

Summary: Learners study electric charge as a property of matter and consider how static electricity and electric fields arise from electron transfer.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know that objects can become statically charged and that forces can act between charged objects.

Common misconceptions: Learners may find it difficult to classify materials as insulators or conductors, or may think positive charge moves to make an object positive.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM3.1i	Recall and apply: charge flow (C) = current (A) x time (s).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P3.1a	Describe charge as a property of matter and explain that positive and negative charges exist.	Most bodies have equal positive and negative charges, giving zero net charge.		WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.3e, WS2a	Use charged rods to repel or attract one another. Use a charged rod to deflect water or pick up paper. Discuss why charged balloons attract to walls.
P3.1b	Describe static electricity and sparking, produced by rubbing surfaces, as evidence that charged objects exert forces without contact.	Static charge only builds up on insulators.		WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.3e	Use a Van de Graaff generator.
P3.1c	Explain how electron transfer between objects explains static electricity.			WS1.1b, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS2a	Use a gold leaf electroscope and charged rod to observe behaviour.
P3.1d	Higher tier only: explain the concept of an electric field and how it explains static electricity.	How electric fields relate to attraction and repulsion forces.	M5b	WS1.3e	Show electric fields using semolina on castor oil.
P3.1e	Recall that current is a rate of flow of charge and the conditions needed for charge to flow.	Conditions for flow: source of potential difference and a closed circuit.
P3.1f	Recall that current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
P3.1g	Recall and use the relationship between charge, current, and time.		M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

P3.2 Simple circuits

Summary: Learners investigate how current, potential difference, and resistance relate in circuits, and how these quantities connect to energy transfer.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should understand conventional current, potential difference, how to assemble series and parallel circuits, and how these ideas differ from electron flow.

Common misconceptions: Potential difference can be difficult to visualise, and learners may confuse component behaviour with energy or work done in a circuit.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM3.2i	Recall and apply: potential difference (V) = current (A) x resistance (Ohm).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM3.2ii	Recall and apply: energy transferred (J) = charge (C) x potential difference (V).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM3.2iii	Recall and apply: power (W) = potential difference (V) x current (A).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM3.2iv	Recall and apply: power (W) = current squared x resistance (Ohm).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM3.2v	Recall and apply: energy transferred (J, kWh) = power (W, kW) x time (s, h).	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P3.2a	Describe differences between series and parallel circuits.	Positioning of measuring instruments and descriptions of current and potential difference behaviour.		WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Build circuits to measure potential difference and current in series and parallel circuits.
P3.2b	Represent d.c. circuits using conventions for positive and negative terminals and common circuit symbols.	Cells, power supply, diodes, LDRs, NTC thermistors, filament lamps, ammeter, voltmeter, fixed and variable resistors, and switches.		WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Build circuits from diagrams.
P3.2c	Recall that current, resistance, and potential difference are measured using A, Ohm, and V.	Definition of potential difference.		WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Record p.d. and current across different components and calculate resistance.
P3.2d	Recall and apply the relationship between current, resistance, and potential difference, including fixed and changing resistance in components.		M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate resistance in a wire and the effect of wire length.
P3.2e	Explain that, for some resistors, resistance remains constant while current changes.
P3.2f	Explain the design and use of circuits that explore changing component behaviour.	Components such as wire of varying resistance, filament lamps, diodes, NTC thermistors, and LDRs.			Build circuits and measure current and potential difference.
P3.2g	Use graphs to explore whether circuit elements are linear or non-linear.		M4c, M4d	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate I-V characteristics of circuit elements.
P3.2h	Use graphs and relate curves to the function and properties of circuit elements.	Wire of varying resistance, filament lamps, diodes, NTC thermistors, and LDRs.	M4c, M4d	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Use wires, filament lamps, and diodes in simple circuits. Alter p.d. and record current using a variable resistor.
P3.2i	Explain why two resistors in series increase total resistance, while two in parallel decrease total resistance.	Qualitative explanation only.	M1c	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate bulb brightness in series and parallel circuits.
P3.2j	Calculate currents, potential differences, and resistances in d.c. series and parallel circuits.	Components such as wire of varying resistance, filament lamps, diodes, NTC thermistors, and LDRs.	M1a, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS1.4a, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate resistance of a thermistor in hot water, resistance of an LDR with light intensity, and how light distance affects photovoltaic output.
P3.2k	Explain the design and use of d.c. circuits for measurement and testing purposes.
P3.2l	Explain how power transfer in a circuit device relates to potential difference, current, and energy changes over time.
P3.2m	Apply equations for potential difference, current, charge, resistance, power, energy, and time, including series resistance and equivalent resistance.		M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic P4 Magnetism and magnetic fields

This topic links moving charge with magnetism. Learners study permanent and induced magnets, magnetic fields, current-carrying conductors, solenoids, motors, induction, transformers, microphones, and loudspeakers.

P4.1 Magnets and magnetic fields

Summary: Learners investigate magnets, magnetic fields, and the magnetic effect around current-carrying wires.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should already understand attractive and repulsive magnetic forces and have some awareness of fields around bar magnets, current effects, and electromagnets.

Common misconceptions: Learners may assume larger magnets are always stronger, misunderstand field line density, or think geographic and magnetic poles are in the same place.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P4.1a	Describe attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets.	Diagrams of magnetic field patterns around bar magnets to show attraction and repulsion.		WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS2a, WS2b	Use suspended magnets to show attraction and repulsion.
P4.1b	Describe the difference between permanent and induced magnets.
P4.1c	Describe the characteristics of a magnet's field, including how strength and direction change from one point to another.	Use diagrams to show how field strength varies around magnets and ways of investigating this.	M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Plot magnetic fields around differently shaped magnets.
P4.1d	Explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is evidence that the Earth's core must be magnetic.
P4.1e	Describe how to show that a current can create a magnetic effect and describe the field direction around a conducting wire.			WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Investigate the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire using plotting compasses.
P4.1f	Recall that magnetic field strength depends on the current and distance from the conductor.		M1c
P4.1g	Explain how solenoid arrangements can enhance the magnetic effect.		M1c	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate the field around a current-carrying solenoid. Explore factors affecting the magnetic effect, such as number of turns and length.

P4.2 Uses of magnetism

Summary: Learners quantify magnetic forces and study how magnetic fields are used in motors, dynamos, transformers, microphones, loudspeakers, and headphones.

Underlying knowledge: Learners build on fields from P4.1 and apply those ideas to electromagnetic applications.

Common misconceptions: Learners may struggle to visualise Fleming's left-hand rule, the action of a commutator in a d.c. motor, or changing fields in transformers.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM4.2i	Apply: force on a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field carrying a current, $F = BIL$ .	M1a, M1b, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
PM4.2ii	Higher tier only: apply the transformer relationship $\frac{V_p}{V_s} = \frac{N_p}{N_s}$ .	M1a, M1b, M1c, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P4.2a	Describe how a magnet and current-carrying conductor exert a force on one another.			WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.3e	Demonstrate the jumping wire experiment.
P4.2b	Show that Fleming's left-hand rule represents the relative directions of force, current, and magnetic field.
P4.2c	Apply the equation linking force on a conductor, magnetic flux density, current, and conductor length to calculate forces.		M1a, M1b, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
P4.2d	Explain how the force from a magnet and current-carrying conductor causes rotation in electric motors.	Understand how electric motors work; detailed motor structure is not expected.		WS1.1e, WS1.3e, WS2a	Construct simple motors.
P4.2e	Higher tier only: recall that a changing magnetic field around a conductor can induce a potential difference, which may drive a current and create a field opposing the original change.			WS1.1e, WS1.3e, WS2a	Examine wind-up radios or torches to investigate dynamos. Demonstrate induction with a strong magnet, wire, and zero point galvanometer.
P4.2f	Higher tier only: explain how this effect is used in an alternator to generate a.c. and in a dynamo to generate d.c.			WS1.1a, WS1.1e, WS1.4a	Research dynamo structure and compare with d.c. motors.
P4.2g	Higher tier only: explain how an alternating current in one circuit can induce a current in another circuit and how this is used in transformers.
P4.2h	Higher tier only: explain how the ratio of potential differences across transformer coils depends on the turns ratio.		M1c	WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b	Build step-up and step-down transformers to investigate their effects.
P4.2i	Higher tier only: apply equations linking transformer potential differences and numbers of turns.		M1c, M3b, M3c
P4.2j	Higher tier only: explain microphone action in converting pressure variations in sound waves into current variations, and the reverse effect in loudspeakers and headphones.	Understand dynamic microphones using electromagnetic induction.		WS1.1e, WS1.2a, WS1.3e, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b	Examine loudspeaker construction and build a loudspeaker.

Topic P5 Waves in matter

This topic introduces mechanical and electromagnetic waves, wave terms, wave behaviour, the electromagnetic spectrum, lenses, colour, reflection, refraction, absorption, and transmission.

P5.1 Wave behaviour

Summary: Learners describe waves as energy transfers and study mechanical and electromagnetic waves, key wave terms, and uses such as ultrasound and sonar.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know transverse and longitudinal waves, how waves behave, how speed can change between media, and the basics of sound and hearing ranges.

Common misconceptions: Learners may struggle to explain ultrasound and sonar images or misread displacement-time graphs of waves.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM5.1i	Recall and apply: wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m).	M1a, M1b, M1c, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P5.1a	Describe wave motion in terms of amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and period.			WS1.1b, WS1.3b, WS1.3e	Observe sound waves on an oscilloscope.
P5.1b	Define wavelength and frequency.
P5.1c	Describe and apply the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and wave velocity.		M1a, M1b, M1c, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.1b, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3d, WS1.3e, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b	Investigate reflection in a ripple tank.
P5.1d	Apply formulae relating velocity, frequency, and wavelength.		M1c, M3c
P5.1e	Describe differences between transverse and longitudinal waves.	Direction of travel and direction of vibration.	M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.3e	Use a slinky to model waves.
P5.1f	Higher tier only: show how changes in velocity, frequency, and wavelength during transmission of sound waves between media are inter-related.		M1c, M3c
P5.1g	Higher tier only: describe the effects of reflection, transmission, and absorption of waves at material interfaces.	Examples such as ultrasound and sonar.		WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Investigate refraction through a glass block, reflection with a plane mirror, and refraction of white light through a prism.
P5.1h	Higher tier only: describe, with examples, processes that convert wave disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids.	Simple structure of the ear is expected.		WS1.1b, WS1.1f, WS1.3b, WS1.3e	Use a signal generator and loudspeaker. Demonstrate sound waves with a Rubens' tube or oscilloscope.
P5.1i	Higher tier only: explain why these processes only work over a limited frequency range and why this matters for human hearing.	Why hearing changes with age.
P5.1j	Describe how ripples on water model transverse waves while sound waves in air are longitudinal, and how the speed of each may be measured.			WS1.1b, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3d, WS1.3e, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b	Investigate refraction in a ripple tank.
P5.1k	Describe evidence that in water ripples and sound in air, the wave travels rather than the water or air itself.

P5.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

Summary: Learners study electromagnetic waves, their spectrum, uses, hazards, and applications in detection and medical imaging.

Underlying knowledge: Learners may know some radiation uses, but the complete electromagnetic spectrum should be treated as new content.

Common misconceptions: Learners may see radio, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays as separate things rather than parts of one spectrum.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P5.2a	Recall that electromagnetic waves are transverse and travel through space at the same velocity.
P5.2b	Explain that electromagnetic waves transfer energy from source to absorber.	Examples from a range of electromagnetic waves.
P5.2c	Apply relationships between frequency and wavelength across the electromagnetic spectrum.		M1a, M1c, M3c	WS1.1b, WS1.3b, WS1.3e	Investigate electromagnetic waves using chocolate or processed cheese in a microwave to measure wavelength.
P5.2d	Describe the main groupings of the electromagnetic spectrum from long to short wavelength and low to high frequency.	Radio, microwave, infrared, visible red to violet, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.		WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.1i	Research and design a poster showing properties, uses, and dangers of electromagnetic wave groups.
P5.2e	Describe that our eyes detect only a limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
P5.2f	Recall that light is an electromagnetic wave.
P5.2g	Give examples of practical uses of electromagnetic waves in radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma regions.			WS1.1b, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.1i, WS1.3e, WS1.3f	Demonstrate microwave heating of water, use a microwave emitter and absorber, and use a phone camera to see an infrared remote-control emitter.
P5.2h	Describe how ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human tissue.			WS1.1a, WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.1i	Show X-ray images and discuss formation, advantages, and disadvantages. Investigate risk balance for staff and patients during radiotherapy.
P5.2i	Higher tier only: explain qualitatively how differences in velocity, absorption, and reflection between waves in solids and liquids can reveal hidden structures.	Use infrared, X-rays, gamma rays, and ultrasound as alternatives in medical imaging.
P5.2j	Recall that radio waves can be produced by, or can induce, oscillations in electrical circuits.

P5.3 Wave interactions

Summary: Learners examine how waves interact with materials through absorption, refraction, reflection, transmission, lenses, and colour.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know light behaviour such as reflection, refraction, absorption, and scattering, and that colours are linked to different frequencies of light.

Common misconceptions: Learners may think coloured filters add colour to light or confuse the primary colours.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P5.3a	Recall that substances can absorb, transmit, refract, or reflect electromagnetic waves differently depending on wavelength.
P5.3b	Explain how some effects are related to different electromagnetic wave velocities in different substances.
P5.3c	Higher tier only: use ray diagrams to show reflection, refraction, and qualitative similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.	How convex and concave lenses are used, for example, in correcting vision.	M5a, M5b	WS1.1b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Use concave and convex lenses to investigate light paths and how image position changes with object distance.
P5.3d	Higher tier only: construct two-dimensional ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction.	Qualitative only; equations are not required.	M5a, M5b
P5.3e	Higher tier only: explain how colour is related to differential absorption, transmission, and reflection.	Specular reflection and scattering.		WS1.1b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Use coloured filters and light sources to investigate how filters work.

Topic P6 Radioactivity

Radioactivity combines ideas about particles and waves. Learners study unstable nuclei, radioactive emissions, half-life, contamination, irradiation, uses and hazards, fission, and fusion.

P6.1 Radioactive emissions

Summary: Learners study isotopes, unstable nuclei, alpha, beta, gamma and neutron emissions, nuclear equations, electron energy levels, ionisation, half-life, and penetration.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should already understand the atomic model, chemical symbols, and formulae. Radioactivity itself can be treated as new content.

Common misconceptions: Learners may find randomness and half-life difficult, or think irradiated objects become radioactive.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P6.1a	Recall that atomic nuclei contain protons and neutrons, and that each element's nucleus has a characteristic positive charge.		M5b
P6.1b	Recall that atoms of the same element can differ in nuclear mass by having different numbers of neutrons.
P6.1c	Use conventional nuclear notation to relate differences between isotopes.	Identities, charges, and masses.
P6.1d	Recall that some nuclei are unstable and may emit alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and gamma rays.			WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2d, WS1.3b, WS1.3f	Use a Geiger-Muller tube and radioactive sources to investigate activity.
P6.1e	Relate alpha, beta, gamma and neutron emissions to possible changes in nuclear mass, charge, or both.
P6.1f	Use names and symbols of common nuclei and particles to write balanced equations for radioactive decay.
P6.1g	Balance equations for alpha, beta, or gamma emission using masses and charges of the atoms involved.		M1b, M1c, M3c
P6.1h	Recall that electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus, can absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation, and that atoms can become ions by losing outer electrons.	Inner electrons can be excited when they absorb radiation and move to a higher energy level. When this energy is lost it is emitted as radiation. Loss of outer electrons is ionisation.
P6.1i	Recall that changes in atoms and nuclei can generate and absorb radiations over a wide frequency range.	These radiations may come from any part of the electromagnetic spectrum, including gamma rays.		WS1.1b, WS1.3e	Demonstrate fluorescence with a black light lamp and tonic water.
P6.1j	Explain half-life and how it relates to the random nature of radioactive decay.		M1c, M3d, M4a, M4c	WS1.1b, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3f, WS1.3h, WS2a	Use dice to model random decay and half-life. Research radioactive dating.
P6.1k	Calculate net decline as a ratio after a given whole number of half-lives.	Half-life graphs.	M1c, M3d
P6.1l	Recall differences in the penetration properties of alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.			WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3f, WS1.3g, WS1.3h	Use a Geiger-Muller tube, radioactive sources, and aluminium plates of different thicknesses to investigate count rate.

P6.2 Uses and hazards

Summary: Learners study hazards and applications of radioactive decay, including medical uses, fission, and fusion.

Underlying knowledge: Learners may know the term radioactivity and some uses, but this content is developed in this topic.

Common misconceptions: Learners may focus only on harmful effects and overlook beneficial uses of radiation.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P6.2a	Recall differences between contamination and irradiation and compare the hazards associated with each.		WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2d, WS1.3b, WS1.3f	Use a spark chamber to demonstrate a different type of activity counter.
P6.2b	Higher tier only: explain why hazards from radioactive material differ according to half-life.		WS1.1a, WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.1i	Illustrate a use of radioactive sources in smoke detectors and discuss suitability.
P6.2c	Higher tier only: describe uses of nuclear radiation for exploring internal organs and controlling or destroying unwanted tissue.		WS1.1a, WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.1i	Research medical uses of radioactive tracers and radiotherapy.
P6.2d	Higher tier only: recall that unstable nuclei may split and relate this to radiation, energy transfer to particles, and possible chain reactions.	Know the term nuclear fission. For fission to occur, the unstable nucleus usually first absorbs a neutron.
P6.2e	Higher tier only: describe nuclear fusion.	Know that mass may be converted into radiation energy.

Topic P7 Energy

Energy consolidates ideas from earlier topics by focusing on stores, transfers, conservation, dissipation, power, efficiency, and reducing unwanted transfers.

P7.1 Work done

Summary: Learners study how energy is stored and transferred, using previous ideas about motion, heating, electrical circuits, and conservation of energy.

Underlying knowledge: Learners may have previously met energy as separate types, but should now describe systems using energy stores and transfers.

Common misconceptions: Learners may think energy is used up, that resting objects have no energy, that all transfers are efficient, or confuse energy and force.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P7.1a	Describe that in a closed system with energy transfers, there is no net change to total energy.	Law of conservation of energy; qualitative only.
P7.1b	Describe energy-store changes when a system changes in common situations.	Objects projected upwards or up a slope, moving objects hitting obstacles, constant-force acceleration, vehicles slowing, and water boiling in an electric kettle.		WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.3c, WS1.3f, WS1.4a, WS1.4e, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c	Explore energy stores and transfers using a wind-up toy, spring and weight, lifted or dropped mass, heated water, or electrical appliances.
P7.1c	Describe energy changes when a system changes by heating, by forces doing work, or by current flow.	Include temperature change and specific heat capacity.
P7.1d	Calculate energy changes in a system by recalling or selecting equations for mechanical, electrical, and thermal processes.	Work done by forces, current flow, heating, and use of kWh for energy in home appliances.	M1a, M1c, M3c	WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b	Use a joulemeter to measure energy used by electrical appliances.
P7.1e	Calculate energy associated with a moving body, stretched spring, and object raised above ground level.		M1a, M1b, M1c, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d	WS1.1b, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b	Use light gates and trolleys for kinetic energy, a joulemeter and motor to lift a weight for potential energy, and bouncy balls to explore energy changes and efficiency.

P7.2 Power and efficiency

Summary: Learners study conservation and dissipation of energy, efficiency, and ways to reduce unwanted transfers.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know useful and wasted energy transfers, power, domestic appliance comparisons, insulation, and factors affecting heat transfer.

Common misconceptions: Learners may think energy can be used up or completely changed from one form to another without dissipation.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM7.2i	Recall and apply: efficiency = useful output energy transfer (J) / input energy transfer (J).	M1a, M1b, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P7.2a	Describe, with examples, how energy is dissipated so it is stored in less useful ways.
P7.2b	Describe how domestic devices transfer energy from batteries or a.c. mains.	How energy may be wasted in motors and heating devices.
P7.2c	Describe, with examples, the relationship between domestic appliance power ratings and stored-energy changes during use.			WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS2a, WS2b	Use joulemeters to investigate power output of electrical appliances.
P7.2d	Calculate energy efficiency for any energy transfer.		M1a, M1b, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d
P7.2e	Describe ways to increase efficiency.
P7.2f	Explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfer.	Lubrication and thermal insulation.		WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1g, WS1.1i, WS1.3b	Research, design, and build energy-efficient model houses. Examine thermograms of houses.
P7.2g	Describe how the cooling rate of a building is affected by wall thickness and thermal conductivity.	Qualitative only.		WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.3a, WS1.3c, WS1.3d, WS1.3e, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS1.3i, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate cooling rates with insulated and non-insulated copper cans.

Topic P8 Global challenges

This topic draws together physical systems and processes in applied contexts. Learners consider transport safety, electricity generation and distribution, domestic supply, astronomy, climate, and exploration of hidden structures.

P8.1 Physics on the move

Summary: Learners apply forces and motion to road safety, reaction times, stopping distances, deceleration, momentum, and vehicle design.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should understand forces, motion, and momentum, and may already know some vehicle safety adaptations.

Common misconceptions: Learners may confuse thinking distance and braking distance, and may not distinguish clearly between these and stopping distance.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P8.1a	Recall typical speeds in everyday experience for wind, sound, walking, running, cycling, and transport systems.		M1d
P8.1b	Estimate magnitudes of everyday accelerations.		M1d
P8.1c	Use ratios and proportional reasoning to convert units and compute rates.	Conversion from non-SI to SI units.	M1c, M3c
P8.1d	Explain methods of measuring human reaction times and recall typical results.		M1a, M2a, M2b	WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS1.3a, WS1.3b, WS1.3c, WS1.3e, WS1.3g, WS1.3h, WS2a, WS2b, WS2c, WS2d	Investigate reaction time using ruler-drop experiments.
P8.1e	Explain factors affecting the distance required for road vehicles to stop in emergencies and the safety implications.	Factors affecting thinking distance, braking distance, and overall stopping distance.
P8.1f	Higher tier only: estimate how emergency stopping distances vary across typical road speeds.		M1c, M1d, M2c, M2h, M3b, M3c	WS1.1e, WS1.1h	Research stopping distances using the Highway Code.
P8.1g	Explain dangers caused by large decelerations.			WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.2a, WS1.2b, WS1.2c, WS1.2e, WS2a, WS2b	Research and build trolley casings for eggs to investigate crumple zones and car safety features.
P8.1h	Higher tier only: estimate forces involved in typical situations on a public road.
P8.1i	Higher tier only: estimate everyday road-transport speed, acceleration, and force values in large accelerations.		M1d, M2b, M2h, M3c

P8.2 Powering Earth

Summary: Learners study electricity generation, renewable and non-renewable sources, national-grid transfer, transformers, domestic supply, and electrical safety.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know energy sources, basic power-station operation, domestic electricity costs, and some home safety features.

Common misconceptions: Learners may confuse energy with power, misunderstand voltages across power lines, or think batteries and sockets contain current waiting to escape.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Mathematical learning outcomes

Reference	Mathematical learning outcomes	Mathematical skills
PM8.2i	Apply: primary potential difference x primary current = secondary potential difference x secondary current.	M1a, M1b, M1c, M1d, M2a, M3a, M3b, M3c, M3d

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P8.2a	Describe main energy sources available on Earth, compare their uses, and distinguish renewable and non-renewable sources.	Fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, biofuel, wind, hydroelectricity, tides, and the Sun.		WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1g, WS1.1h, WS1.1i, WS1.3e	Research energy sources. Demonstrate a steam engine and discuss energy transfers.
P8.2b	Explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources.	Changing use of different resources over time.		WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.1g, WS1.1h, WS1.1i	Research and present information to encourage energy-saving measures. Research how electricity use has changed over 150 years.
P8.2c	Recall that in the national grid, electrical power is transferred at high voltages from power stations and at lower voltages locally for domestic use.
P8.2d	Recall that step-up and step-down transformers change potential difference during power transfer from power stations.			WS1.1b, WS1.1e, WS1.1f, WS1.3e	Use a model power line to demonstrate greater energy losses at lower voltage and higher current.
P8.2e	Explain how the national grid transfers energy efficiently.
P8.2f	Higher tier only: link transformer potential differences and turns to power transfer and the advantage of high-voltage transmission.		M1c, M3b, M3c
P8.2g	Recall that UK domestic supply is a.c. at 50 Hz and about 230 V.
P8.2h	Explain the difference between direct and alternating voltage.			WS1.3b, WS1.3e	Use a data logger to compare a.c. and d.c. output traces.
P8.2i	Recall differences in function between live, neutral, and earth mains wires, and the potential differences between them.			WS2a	Wire a plug.
P8.2j	Explain why a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch is open, and the danger of connecting live wire to earth.	Protection offered by insulation of devices.

P8.3 Beyond Earth

Summary: Learners study planets, satellites, stars, red-shift, Big Bang evidence, black-body radiation, solar-system features, orbits, Earth's temperature balance, and wave methods for exploring hidden structures.

Underlying knowledge: Learners should know bodies in the solar system, satellite behaviour, basic ideas of the Big Bang, and that distances to celestial bodies are very large.

Common misconceptions: Learners may think the Sun is not a star or may find astronomical distances hard to judge.

Tiering: Higher-tier-only statements are identified in the learning outcomes; all other statements are assessed at both tiers.

Topic content

Reference	Learning outcomes	To include	Maths	Working scientifically	Practical suggestions
P8.3a	Higher tier only: explain red-shift of light from receding galaxies qualitatively, and how increasing galaxy speed with distance supports an expanding universe.	Understand changes in frequency and wavelength.		WS1.1b	Use a Doppler ball to model red-shift. Use a balloon to illustrate galaxies moving away and expansion.
P8.3b	Higher tier only: explain how red-shift and other evidence link to the Big Bang model.	CMBR.
P8.3c	Higher tier only: recall that the Sun formed from dust and gas drawn together by gravity, causing fusion and equilibrium between collapse and expansion.	Life cycle of a star.		WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.1c	Research and produce a poster showing the life cycle of a star.
P8.3d	Higher tier only: explain that all bodies emit radiation, with intensity and wavelength distribution depending on temperature.	Hot objects can emit a continuous range of electromagnetic radiation at different energies, frequencies, and wavelengths.		WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.1c, WS1.1d, WS1.1f, WS1.1g, WS1.1i, WS1.3e	Compare temperature changes in sealed transparent containers with different gases. Research evidence for global warming over 200 years.
P8.3e	Higher tier only: recall main solar-system features, including similarities and differences between planets, moons, and artificial satellites.	The eight planets, minor planets, geostationary and polar orbits, and how artificial satellites compare with natural satellites.		WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.1c, WS1.1g, WS1.1i	Build a scale model of the solar system. Research Moon-origin evidence and uses of geostationary and polar satellites.
P8.3f	Higher tier only: explain qualitatively how gravity in circular orbits can change a planet's velocity while speed stays unchanged.
P8.3g	Higher tier only: explain qualitatively why radius must change if speed changes in a stable orbit.
P8.3h	Higher tier only: explain how body temperature relates to the balance of incoming absorbed radiation and emitted radiation, using everyday examples and Earth's temperature.	Earth's atmosphere affects electromagnetic radiation from the Sun that passes through it.
P8.3i	Higher tier only: explain qualitatively how differences in velocity, absorption, and reflection between waves in solids and liquids can reveal hidden structures in the Earth's core and deep water.	P and S waves and sonar.	M5b	WS1.1a, WS1.1b, WS1.1c, WS1.1f, WS1.1h, WS1.3b	Examine seismographic traces. Research earthquake-resistant building design and link it to P and S wave characteristics.

Topic P9 Practical skills

Learners must complete practical activities that give them opportunities to use the required apparatus and techniques. Practical skills are assessed through written examination questions and should be developed throughout the course.

Centres can use the practical suggestions in the specification or devise suitable alternatives, but learners must have opportunities to use all required apparatus and techniques. Safe working and appropriate scientific diagrams should be included wherever relevant.

The practical requirements can be revised if national apparatus and technique requirements change; centres should use the current published specification when planning practical work.

Practical Activity Groups

Practical Activity Group	Apparatus and techniques	Example physics activity
P1 Materials	Use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements accurately, including length, area, mass, time, volume, and temperature. Use these measurements to determine densities of solid and liquid objects.	Determine the densities of a variety of solid and liquid objects.
P2 Forces	Use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements accurately, including length, area, mass, time, volume, and temperature. Measure and observe the effects of forces, including spring extension.	Investigate the effect of forces on springs.
P3 Motion	Use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements accurately, including length, area, mass, time, volume, and temperature. Measure motion, including speed and rate of change of speed.	Investigate acceleration of a trolley down a ramp.
P4 Measuring waves	Use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements accurately, including length, area, mass, time, volume, and temperature. Observe waves in fluids and solids to choose apparatus for measuring speed, frequency, and wavelength.	Use a ripple tank to measure wave speed, frequency, and wavelength.
P5 Energy	Use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements accurately, including length, area, mass, time, volume, and temperature. Safely measure energy changes and transfers, including values such as work done.	Determine the specific heat capacity of a metal.
P6 Circuit components	Use appropriate apparatus to measure current, potential difference, and resistance, and explore characteristics of a variety of circuit elements.	Investigate the I-V characteristics of circuit elements.
P7 Series and parallel circuits	Use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel circuits, including a variety of common circuit elements.	Investigate the brightness of bulbs in series and parallel.
P8 Interactions of waves	Make observations of waves in fluids and solids to identify suitable apparatus for measuring the effects of wave interactions with matter. Make observations of the effects of electromagnetic wave interactions with matter.	Investigate reflection of light from a plane mirror and refraction of light through a prism.

Centres may substitute alternative practical activities where they still cover the required apparatus and techniques. The apparatus and techniques may be covered in any of the indicated groups.